periodically reviews naming practice, attempting to standardise nomenclature. This occurs because if the atoms formed an ionic bond, then it would have already become a compound, thus not needing to gain or loose any electrons. Since this oxidation state is lower than the other possibility (Fe3+), this compound is sometimes called ferrous oxide. The cation, iron, can occur as Fe2+ and Fe3+. Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\): Even more simple nomenclature problems. The net charge of any ionic compound must be zero which also means it must be electrically neutral. 1. The nomenclature of alchemy is rich in description, but does not effectively meet the aims outlined above. Generally this involveseither, naming all the ligands followed by all the metals, in both cases using prefixes to indicate the number of each, or. What is the correct name for Al(NO3)3? The word hydrogen is changed to the prefix, The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -, The word acid is added as a second word. Before going into these rules it is worth pointing out a few things. When naming the ligands and the overall complex, again there is much that is haphazard. The nomenclature used depends on the needs of the user, so no single correct nomenclature exists. So in other words the ligand classifications presented herejust represent common binding modes. This contains [CoCl(NH3)5]2+; so O.S.Co + 1 x (-1) (for Cl-) + 0 x 5 (for NH3) = +2 (the complex'scharge) so O.S.Co = +3 or Co3+. This myth is false. In many cases it is sufficient to reserve the use of formal IUPAC names for use in publications and to employ a convenient shorthand naming system for everyday use. Rule 1: If ions are present, name the cation first, followed by the anion. Polyatomic anions are more common than polyatomic cations as shown in the chart below. 1. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry Cambridge, UK, 2005. Example of the use of prefixes to specify the number of ligands of each type in a complex.3, Example: cis-dichlorobis(dimethyl sulfoxide)platinum(II) or cis-dichlorobis(dimethylsulfoxide)platinum(II), Examples: Cl- = chloro, NH2- = amido, N3- = azido, Caveat: some anionic ligands have common names that may also be used. In chemical nomenclature, the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is a systematic method of naming inorganic chemical compounds, as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Electronic version.. Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents, London:Portland Press, 1992. cis-dichlorocarbonyltriphenylphosphineiridium(I), or cis-dichloro(carbonyl)(triphenylphosphine)iridium(I), cis-dichlorocarbonyltriphenylphosphineiridium(0), or cis-dichloro(carbonyl)(triphenylphosphine)iridium(0). PDF Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry 12. Isotopically Modified Compounds The IUPAC naming system helpfully avoids the sort of ambiguities and ad hoc choices involved in most textbook-level nomenclature systems for multimetallic complexes. Write the correct name for these compounds. For example, organic compounds include molecules with carbon rings and/or chains with hydrogen atoms (see picture below). https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_nomenclature&oldid=1158589861, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0, Functional class name, also known as a radicofunctional name, This page was last edited on 5 June 2023, at 01:16. Use of the \(\kappa\) notation to specify the number of attached groups in a multidentate ligand. An empirical formula gives the relative numbers of atoms of the elements in a compound, reduced to the lowest whole numbers. After mastering the material discussed later on this course, one is able to predict the compositions and structures of compounds of this type with a high degree of accuracy. Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{III}}\). Writing and interpreting formulae for multinuclear complexes, IUPAC brief guide to inorganic nomenclature, complete guidelines, commonly known as the IUPAC red book, https://www.clipart.email/download/1127636.html, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, this page which focuses on getting the names of the ligands and metal right, without worrying about isomerism or stereochemistry, common patterns of isomerism in metal complexes, 9.2.6: multinuclear coordination complexes, a set of simple examples with explained solutions, a set of more challenging exercises without solutions, https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Saint_Mary's_College%2C_Notre_Dame%2C_IN/CHEM_342%3A_Bio-inorganic_Chemistry/Readings/Week_2%3A_Introduction_to_Metal-Ligand_Interactions_and_Biomolecules/2.1_Transition_metal_complexes/2.1.6%3A_Naming_Transition_Metal_Complexes, (methanesulfinyl)methane or dimethyl(oxido)sulfur, NO (are always considered neutral for naming purposes), nitrogen dioxide-\(\kappa\)N or nitrogen dioxide-, \(\beta\), \(\beta\)', \(\beta\)''-triaminotriethylamine, \(\beta\), \(\beta\)', \(\beta\)''-tris(2-aminoethyl)amine, 1,4,8,11-tetramethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane, 2,2'-ethylenebis(nitrilomethylidene)diphenoxido, 2,2,2,2-(Ethane-1,2-diyldinitrilo)tetraaceto, pentetato acid or diethylenetriaminepentaacetato or DTPA, 2-[bis[2-[bis(carboxylatomethyl)amino]ethyl]amino]acetato, 1,4,7,10-Tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid, when a multidentate ligand binds through less than the full number of atoms, tetrahydroxidocuprate(III) or tetrahydroxidocuprate(III), tetrahydroxidocuprate(1-) or tetrahydroxidocuprate(1-), hexacyanoferrate(III) or hexacyanidoferrrate(III), hexacyanoferrate(3-) or hexacyanidoferrate(3-), potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) or potassium hexacyanidoferrrate(II), potassium hexacyanoferrate(4-) or potassium hexacyanidoferrrate(4-), bis(ethylenediamine)bisnitrocopper(II) or bis(ethylenediamine)bis(nitrito-\(\kappa\), bis(ethylenediamine)bisnitrocopper(0) or bis(ethylenediamine)bis(nitrito-\(\kappa\), hexamminecobalt(III) tris(oxalato)cobalt(III), hexamminecobalt(3+) tris(oxalato)cobalt(3-), tetracyanonickelate(II) or tetracyanonickelate(II) ion, tetracyanonickelate(2-) or tetracyanonickelate(2-) ion, hexacarbonylmanganese(I) tetraphenylborate, hexacarbonylmanganese(1+) tetraphenylborate. Map: Chemistry - The Central Science (Brown et al. For example, the compound .mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}LiBr is made of Li+ cations and Br anions; thus, it is called lithium bromide. were developed concurrently with those for isotopically modified organic compounds[la]. Rules for Writing Formulas and Names of Inorganic Compound Video tutorial The following summary is based on the IUPAC Red Book (377 pages pdf file, 4.1 MB) rules operating since 2005. For example, the hydroxide ion (OH) accepts a proton to form H2O. However, in order to name coordination compounds accurately you will need to learnhow to think about and name ligands first. In specifying the ligands several rules are followed. In this section the most common approaches as they are currently used by practicing chemists will be described. Let's apply these rules to the examples in Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{VIII}}\). (ii) The ligand symbols (line formulae, abbreviations or acronyms) are then listed in alphabetical order (see Section IR-4.4.2.2).5 Thus, CH3CN, MeCN and NCMe would be ordered under C, M and N respectively, and CO precedes Cl because single letter symbols precede two letter symbols. Although there may be a element with positive charge like H+, it is not joined with another element with an ionic bond. \(\Delta\)-tris(tetraammine-\(\mu\)-dihydroxocobalt)cobalt(6+) or \(\Delta\)-tris(tetraammine-\(\mu\)-dihydroxocobalt(III)cobalt(III). When these ions combine into a type-I binary compound, their equal-but-opposite charges are neutralized, so the compound's net charge is zero. IUPAC nomenclature is used for the naming of chemical compounds, based on their chemical composition and their structure. As in this complex, dithiocarbamates commonly bind metals through both sulfur atoms. In addition, the prefix mono- is not used with the first element; for example, SO2 is sulfur dioxide, not "monosulfur dioxide". These cases may also be handled by using a designator to specify the coordination geometry and, as necessary, giving the position of ligated atoms in terms of designated numbered positions for that geometry. The ligands are written in alphabetical order by the ligand name only; symbols are not considered and prefixes do not count in determining alphabetical order. However, as the complex is no longer thought to possess an Fe-Fe bond it is omitted here. Write reasonable formulae for complexes A, B, and D in Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{VIII}}\), which for convenience is reproduced below. Typical oxyacids consist of hydrogen combined with a polyatomic, oxygen-containing ion. The metal is changed to end in ous or ic. The "a" of the penta- prefix is not dropped before a vowel. Write formulae for each of the following compounds and ions. The groups are the same if the metal, ligands, and ligand arrangement are identical. This system is used commonly in naming acids, where H2SO4 is commonly known as Sulfuric Acid, and H2SO3 is known as Sulfurous Acid. 2005, 366 pages. For example, one Na+ is paired with one Cl-; one Ca2+ is paired with two Br-. O.S.Pt + 1 x (-2) (for por; see table 9.2.2) + 1 x (-1) (for Cl-) = +0 (the complex'scharge) so O.S.Mn = +3 or Mn3+. Ammonium Permanganate; NH4MnO4 --> NH4+ + MnO4- --> Ammonium Permanganate, c. Cobalt (II) Thiosulfate; CoS2O3 --> Co + S2O32- --> Cobalt must have +2 charge to make a neutral compund --> Co2+ + S2O32- --> Cobalt(II) Thiosulfate. sion on the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (CNIC) was established rather later, because of the later systematisation of this branch of the subject, and it now fulfils functions similar to those of CNOC but in inorganic chemistry. PDF Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: Ii. 1Isotopically Modified Compounds CO = carbon monoxide BCl3 = borontrichloride, CO2 = carbon dioxide N2O5 =dinitrogen pentoxide. Following naturally from the classification of non-chelating ligands as monodentate, chelating ligands are further classified according to the number of sites which they can use to bind a metal center. In order to name a complex in the Stock system it is necessary to assign a formal oxidation state to the metal. Organic molecules do not follow this rule. Name the compounds and ions below using both the Stock and Ewing-Bassett systems. For this course, here are the classes and subclasses of inorganic compounds to know about: ionic - compound composed of ions, but overall neutral charge (compound typically contains a metal) binary ionic compound - two elements: metal cation and nonmetal anion ternary ionic compound - three elements: metal cation and polyatomic anion Multinuclear coordination complexes may be named differently depending on whether the groups on either side of the bridging ligands are the same or different. The main oxide of phosphorus is called phosphorus pentaoxide. Two of the 1+ copper ions are needed to balance the charge of one 2 chromate ion, so the formula is Cu2CrO4. It is generally understood that the aims of lexicography versus chemical nomenclature vary and are to an extent at odds. For compound C of Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{VIII}}\). 2H2O}\). The Haas, K. Naming Transition Metal Complexes. This is indicated by assigning a Roman numeral after the metal. 7.2: Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. A quick way to identify acids is to see if there is an H (denoting hydrogen) in front of the molecular formula of the compound. While IUPAC has a human-readable advantage over CAS numbering, IUPAC names for some larger, relevant molecules (such as rapamycin) are barely human-readable, so common names are used instead. Enclose all the constituents of each complex ion in square brackets. The state of acids is aqueous (aq) because acids are found in water. To illustrate this classification system examples of chelating ligands classified according to denticity are given in Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{I}}\). Covalent bonding occurs between nonmetal elements. For this reason, you are urged to approach the rules in a spirit of generosity towards others in. They are formulated here as a new chapter to the IUPAC Inorganic Nomenclature Rules already published[2] and replace . It is important to know the names of common polyatomic ions; these include: The formula Na2SO3 denotes that the cation is sodium, or Na+, and that the anion is the sulfite ion (SO23). Rule 2: When multiple isomers are possible, designate the particular isomer in italics at the front of the name of each complex. Without context, the name should indicate at least the chemical composition. Like all assumptions these don't always work in real life but they should be good enough to get you through your first inorganic chemistry course. Therefore, this compound is named sodium sulfite. Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents, London:Portland Press, 1992. https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Saint_Mary's_College%2C_Notre_Dame%2C_IN/CHEM_342%3A_Bio-inorganic_Chemistry/Readings/Week_2%3A_Introduction_to_Metal-Ligand_Interactions_and_Biomolecules/2.1_Transition_metal_complexes/2.1.6%3A_Naming_Transition_Metal_Complexes. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds - ACS Publications Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations 2005 1 The basics of this nomenclature are shown here, and in companion documents on the nomenclature systems for organic chemistry 2 and polymers, 3 with hyperlinks to the original documents. If both elements are in the same group, the element closer to the bottom of the column is named first. There are a number of exceptions and special cases that violate the above rules. An older system relying on Latin names for the elements is also sometimes used to name Type-II ionic binary compounds. 6. Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{VIII}}\). (1990). For example, take the compound FeCl3. (PDF) IUPAC Nomenclature - General Rules For All Classes Of Organic Covalently-bonded compounds are also known as molecules. Classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds Type-II ionic binary compounds are those in which the cation does not have just one oxidation state. Use of the \(\mu\) notation to specify bridging ligands in metal complexes.3. For example, Cu, However, you may ignore that and other rules if you find it helpful to keep groups of metals and ligands together in a way that better conveys how the atoms are connected. Rules for writing the formulae of coordination compounds, Application of the IUPAC system and variants thereof to symmetric complexes, A note on the application of the IUPAC system and variants thereof to asymmetric complexes. As appropriate, use italicized atom symbols to indicate linkage isomerism and prefixes such as, When a ligand is bound to a metal through a particular atom, preferably place that atom closest to the metal -, \(\Delta\)-diamminebis(oxalato)manganate(III), tricarbonyldichlorobis(triphenylphosphine)molybdenum, The ligands are given in alphabetical order. Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{V}}\). Since the publication of IUPAC's Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry - Recommendations 1990 (the 'Red Book') inorganic chemistry has continued to expand and flourish, bringing with it the need to adapt and develop associated nomenclature. Type-III binary compounds are covalently bonded. Thus, this compound is called iron(III) chloride. Place the elements in their proper order. Empirical formulas are particularly useful for describing the composition of ionic compounds, which do not contain readily identifiable molecules. If two or more elements are in the same group, start with the bottom element and work up. A chemical nomenclature is a set of rules to generate systematic names for chemical compounds.The nomenclature used most frequently worldwide is the one created and developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).. 2. These two rules are sufficient to describe simple symmetric bridging complexes. It is called as the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of nomenclature. Such acids include sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or carbonic acid (H2CO3). Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\): Nomenclature problems, some of which involve consideration of isomerism. PDF Announcement of nominations for Union Officers and Science Board and An international conference was convened in Geneva in 1892 by the national chemical societies, from which the first widely accepted proposals for standardization arose.[15]. To name them, follow these quick, simple rules: 1. This work by Stephen Contakes is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. In neutral and cationic complexes the metal's name is used directly. Scheme \(\sf{\PageIndex{VI}}\). (d) tridentate (only the lower N on each ring has a lone pair that can be used to bind the metal), (e) hexadentate (remember that each carboxylate only counts as one point of attachment), (g) monodentate (through the lone pair on the isocyanide C). Nomenclature is the process of naming chemical compounds with different names so that they can be easily identified as separate chemicals. Use the absolute value of the charge on each ion as the subscript for the other ion. These rules are graphically summarized in Figure \(\sf{\PageIndex{2}}\). For example, the compound FeO contains the Fe2+ cation (which balances out with the O2 anion). Use the absolute value of the charge on each ion as the subscript for the other ion. When learning chemical nomenclature, practice makes perfect. K2[PtIICl4] potassium tetrachloroplatinate(2-), [CoIII(NH3)6](NO3)3 hexaamminecobalt(3+) nitrate, [CoIII(NH3)6][CrIII(C2O4)3] hexaamminecobalt(3+) tris(oxalato)chromium(3-). H2O, for example, is usually called water rather than dihydrogen monoxide, and NH3 is preferentially called ammonia rather than nitrogen trihydride. In nomenclature, polyatomic ions or molecules are often considered to be made up of a positively charged species, (the charge being indicated by an oxidation number), surrounded by ligands, (neutral or negatively charged species), which each have a pair of electrons on the atom bonded (coordinated) to the central cation. Ligands thatbind through only a single site are called monodentatefromthe Latin word for tooth; in contrast, those which bind through multiple sites are called chelating after the Greek \(\chi \alpha \lambda \epsilon \) for claw. COMMISSION ON NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC BORON COMPOUNDS Adopted by the IUPAC Council at Washington, DC, USA, during 2123 July 1971 Prepared for publication by R. M. ADAMS Geneva College, Beaver Falls, Pa 15010, USA LONDON BUTTER WORTHS. - e.g. A graphical summary of the rules for naming complexes along with a few examples that you can use to review the nomenclature rules is given in Figure \(\sf{\PageIndex{1}}\). Example: In the name of the complex ion [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+, pentamminechlorocobalt(II), the ammine ligand is named before the chloro ligand because the order is alphabetical by the ligand name by virtue of which ammine comes before chloro. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. List the elements in order according to their positions in the periodic table. The prefix mono- is not used for the first element. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Note that this complex was once thought to possess an Fe-Fe bond, in accordance with the predictions of the 18-electron rule. The purpose of these rules is to facilitate clear and precise communication among chemists. These names are given in Table \(\sf{\PageIndex{5}}\). The French chemist Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau published his recommendations[10] in 1782, hoping that his "constant method of denomination" would "help the intelligence and relieve the memory". It may seem that the compositions and structures of such compounds are entirely random, but this is not true. If the given formula is Ca(OH)2, it can be seen that OH is the hydroxide ion. The prefix. If there is not a prefix before the first element, it is assumed that there is only one atom of that element. The following examples and exercises are provided to give you this practice. There are some exceptions to the general naming method (e.g., H2SO4 is called sulfuric acid, not sulfic acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous, not sulfous, acid). 9.3: Nomenclature and Ligands - Chemistry LibreTexts Since these methods are commonly used by textbooks and inorganic instructors it is likely worth your while to learn about their general features. with some examples taken from Naming Transition Metal Complexes by Kathryn Haas. A few compounds, however, have common names that prevail. or cis-tetraacetonitriledicyanidoiron(II), or trans-tetraacetonitriledicyanidoiron(II), or trans-tetraacetonitriledicyanidoiron(0), trans-bromochlorobis(ethylenediamine)iron(III), or trans-bromidochloridobis(ethylenediamine)iron(III), trans-bromochlorobis(ethylenediamine)iron(1+), or trans-bromidochloridobis(ethylenediamine)iron(1+), or fac-tricarbonyltricyanidomolybdate(3-), or mer-tricarbonyltricyanidomolybdate(3-). The prefixes to provide linkage and stereochemistry for ligands are given in Table \(\sf{\PageIndex{4}}\). Even though the IUPAC nomenclature rules permit specification of even the most complex structures, it is often much easier and more effective to supply a numbered structure that can be referred to instead of the IUPAC name. For type-I ionic binary compounds, the cation (a metal in most cases) is named first, and the anion (usually a nonmetal) is named second. Since the charge on the calcium ion is 2+, it makes sense there must be two OH ions to balance the charge. 3. If there are multiple ions present list the cations before anions. 9Bfm([,B7kB?X)v}+X0:7(c`@J6^d@f-a4+@3Grh{ .u)dj5K L{-jd5]>jL0xu}4_e@C`c@1xFH@NS. Although HF can be named hydrogen fluoride, it is given a different name for emphasis that it is an acid. The IUPAC Commission on the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, in its first meeting after the publication of the 1957 Rules (Munich 1959), scheduled further work for the Commission to deal with the nomenclature of boron hydrides and higher hydrides of the Group IVVI elements, polyacids, and organometallic compounds. The IUPAC and common names of many ligands are given in Tables \(\sf{\PageIndex{1}}\). naming and writing formulas as reasonably accurately as you can so that ligands and metals are where readers expect them and thus can understand what you mean more easily. When multidentate ligands are present use suitable abbreviations. If those are still not enough a careful read of note \(\sf{\PageIndex{1}}\) is suggested. The details of how this is done are typically beyond the level of most undergraduate and graduate courses in inorganic chemistry. (i) The central atom symbol(s) is (are) listed first. What is the correct formula of phosphorus trichloride? Inorganic compounds are compounds that do not deal with the formation of carbohydrates, or simply all other compounds that do not fit into the description of an organic compound. The IUPAC's rules for naming organic and inorganic compounds are contained in two publications, known as the Blue Book and the Red Book, respectively. These "color books" are supplemented by specific recommendations published periodically in the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. An acid is a substance that dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions in water. Ligands with two binding sites have a denticity of two and are said to be bidentate; those with three are tridentate, four tetradentate, and so on. 4. As can be seen from the examples above this system gives serviceable names for multimetallic complexes but those names are not the IUPAC names and so should not be used to describe complexes outside of pedagogical and informal settings. N2O3 is called nitrogen sesquioxide (sesqui- means .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}1+12). The rules for writing the formulae of coordination compounds follow the same convention used to specify their names. An example of the application of the metal naming rules is given in Scheme \sf{\PageIndex{VII}}\). Thus bases are also referred to as proton acceptors. However, not all such names (or stems) are derived from the element name. Even though the IUPAC nomenclature rules permit specification of even the most complex structures, it is often much easier and more effective to supply a numbered structure that can be referred to instead of the IUPAC name. (A) Only one oxygen per carboxylate counts towards the denticity of EDTA since on binding the other oxygen generally points away from the metal center, as in the structure of Fe(EDTA)-. If one is asked to write the formula for copper(I) chromate, the Roman numeral indicates that copper ion is Cu+ and one can identify that the compound contains the chromate ion (CrO24). PDF Short Summary of IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds These cases involve specifying. Sometimes the prefix is left off the initial atom: I2O5 is known as iodine pentaoxide, but it should be called diiodine pentaoxide. Other examples are given in Table \(\PageIndex{3}\). Subsequently, some vitamins have indeed been confirmed to be amines. A PDF of the document in Catalan version Chem.Listy 2021, 115, 673-678. . Those who need a more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the full IUPAC nomenclature rules are encouraged to consult the IUPAC brief guide to inorganic nomenclature followed by complete guidelines, commonly known as the IUPAC red book. PDF NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC BORON COMPOUNDS - International Union of Pure Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Simple Nomenclature Problems. Binary covalent compoundscovalent compounds that contain only two elementsare named using a procedure similar to that used for simple ionic compounds, but prefixes are added as needed to indicate the number of atoms of each kind. Cations have positive charges while anions have negative charges.
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